Evolution and the meaning of metaphase.

We used an evolutionary test to ask whether the congression of chromosomes to the spindle equator is important in itself or just a mitotic happenstance. If congression matters, then it might evolve if absent initially. Previous workers established that newly made trivalents, meiotic units of three chromosomes, generally do not congress to the spindle equator. Instead, these young trivalents lie close to the pole to which two of the three chromosomes are oriented. We studied ancient sex-chromosome trivalents that arose hundreds of thousands to several million years ago in several species of praying mantids and one grasshopper. All these old trivalents lie near the spindle equator at metaphase; some of them congress as precisely to the equator as the ordinary chromosomes in the same cells. We conclude that congression evolved independently two or three times in the materials studied. Therefore, the metaphase position of chromosomes midway between the poles appears to matter, but why? In the praying mantids, the evident answer is that metaphase is a quality-control checkpoint. Sometimes the three chromosomes are not associated in a trivalent but rather are present as a bivalent plus an unpaired chromosome, which lies near one pole. Earlier workers showed that such cells are blocked in metaphase and eventually degenerate; this prevents the formation of sperm with abnormal combinations of sex chromosomes. We suggest that the quality-control system would have trouble distinguishing an unpaired chromosome from an uncongressed, newly arisen trivalent, both of which would lie near a spindle pole. If so, the confused quality-control system would block anaphase imprudently, causing a loss of cells that would have produced normal sperm. Hence, we conclude that the congression of the trivalent to the equator probably evolved along with the metaphase quality-control checkpoint. The mechanism of congression in old trivalents is uncertain, but probably involves an interesting force-sensitive regulation of the motors associated with particular chromosomes. We also examined the congression of two newly made quadrivalents when they orient with three kinetochores to one pole and one to the other. As others have described, one of these quadrivalents does not congress, while the other quadrivalent comes closer than expected to the spindle equator. Such variation in the extent of congression may provide materials on which natural selection can act, leading to the evolution of congression. The trivalents of praying mantids are attractive materials for further studies of the mechanism of congression and of the idea that metaphase is a checkpoint for progression through the cell cycle.